Global Warming
Global mean surface-temperature change from 1880 to 2016, relative to the 1951–1980 mean. The black line is the global annual mean, and the red line is the five-yearlocal regression line. The blue uncertainty bars show a 95% confidence interval.
Global warming, also referred to as climate change, is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth'sclimate system and its related effects.[1][2]Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming.[3][4][5] Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid-19th century, and in paleoclimate proxy records covering thousands of years.[6]
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that "It is extremely likelythat human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century."[7] The largest human influence has been the emission of greenhouse gasessuch as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century, the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in the lowest emissions scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in the highest emissions scenario.[8] These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations[9][a] and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing.[11][12]
Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region.[13][14]Anticipated effects include increasing global temperatures, rising sea levels, changingprecipitation, and expansion of deserts in thesubtropics.[15] Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans andgreatest in the Arctic, with the continuingretreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely changes include more frequentextreme weather events such as heat waves,droughts, heavy rainfall with floods and heavysnowfall;[16] ocean acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels.[17][18] Because the climate system has a large "inertia" and greenhouse gases will remain in the atmosphere for a long time, many of these effects will persist for not only decades or centuries, but for tens of thousands of years to come.[19]
Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate engineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),[20]whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change.[21]Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required[22] and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) compared to pre-industrial levels,[b] with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F).[24]
Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing. A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed that a median of 54% of all respondents asked consider it "a very serious problem". Significant regional differences exist, with Americans and Chinese (whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions) among the least concerned.[25]
Observed temperature changes
Annual (thin lines) and five-year lowess smooth (thick lines) for the temperature anomalies averaged over the Earth’s land area and sea surface temperature anomalies (blue line) averaged over the part of the ocean that is free of ice at all times (open ocean).
Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions from climate proxies, each smoothed on a decadal scale, with the instrumental temperature record overlaid in black.
In the period from 1880 to 2012, the global average (land and ocean) surface temperature has increased by 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, multiple independently produced datasets confirm.[26] In the period from 1906 to 2005, Earth's average surface temperaturerose by 0.74±0.18 °C. The rate of warming almost doubled in the last half of that period (0.13±0.03 °C per decade, against0.07±0.02 °C per decade).[27] Although the popular press often reports the increase of the average near-surface atmospheric temperature as the measure of global warming, most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has accumulated in the oceans. The rest has melted ice and warmed the continents and the atmosphere.[28][c]
Since 1979, the average temperature of the lower troposphere has increased between 0.12 and 0.135 °C (0.216 and 0.243 °F) per decade, satellite temperature measurements confirm.[29][30] Climate proxiesshow the temperature to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand yearsbefore 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age.[31]
The warming evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations, as documented by many independent scientific groups.[32]Examples include sea level rise,[33]widespread melting of snow and land ice,[34]increased heat content of the oceans,[32]increased humidity,[32] and the earlier timingof spring events,[35] e.g., the flowering of plants.[36] The probability that these changes could have occurred by chance is virtually zero.[32]
Regional trends and short-term fluctuations
Temperature increases vary a lot across the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 °C per decade against0.13 °C per decade).[37] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacityof the oceans and because oceans lose more heat by evaporation.[38] Since the beginning of industrialisation in the eighteenth century, the temperature difference between thehemispheres has increased due to melting of sea ice and snow in the North.[39] In the past one hundred years, average arctic temperatures have been increasing at almost twice the rate of the rest of the world; however, arctic temperatures are also highly variable.[40] Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere, this fact does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to diffuse within as well as between the hemispheres.[41]
The thermal inertia of the oceans and the slow responses of other indirect effects occasion the climate to take centuries or longer to adjust to past changes in forcings. One climate commitment study concluded that if greenhouse gases were stabilized at year 2000 levels, surface temperatures would still increase by about one-half degree Celsius,[42] and another found that if they were stabilized at 2005 levels, surface warming could exceed a whole degree Celsius. Some of this surface warming will be driven by past natural forcings which are still seekingequilibrium in the climate system. One study using a highly simplified climate model indicates these past natural forcings may account for as much as 64% of the committed 2050 surface warming and their influence will fade with time compared to the human contribution.[43]
Global temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long-term trends and can temporarily mask them. The relative stability in surface temperature from 2002 to 2009, which has since been dubbed the global warming hiatus by the media and some scientists,[44] is an example of such an episode.[45][46] 2015 updates to account for differing methods of measuring ocean surface temperature measurements show a positive trend over the recent decade.[47][48]
Warmest years vs. overall trend
Sixteen of the seventeen warmest years on record have occurred since 2000.[49] While record-breaking years attract considerable public interest, individual years are less significant than the overall trend. Some climatologists have criticized the attention that the popular press gives to "warmest year" statistics. In particular, ocean oscillations such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation(ENSO) can cause temperatures of a given year to be abnormally warm or cold for reasons unrelated to the overall trend of climate change. Gavin Schmidt stated "the long-term trends or the expected sequence of records are far more important than whether any single year is a record or not."[50]
Initial causes of temperature changes (external forcings)
CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000 years.
Greenhouse effect schematic showing energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface. Energy exchanges are expressed in watts per square metre (W/m2).
By itself, the climate system may generate random changes in global temperatures for years to decades at a time, but long-term changes emanate only from so-called external forcings.[51][52][53] These forcings are "external" to the climate system, but not necessarily external to Earth.[54] Examples of external forcings include changes in the composition of the atmosphere (e.g., increased concentrations of greenhouse gases), solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[55]
Greenhouse gases
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infraredradiation by gases in a planet's atmospherewarm its lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824, discovered in 1860 by John Tyndall,[56] was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896,[57] and its scientific description was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Callendar.[58][59]
On Earth, an atmosphere containing naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases causes air temperature near the surface to be about 33 °C (59 °F) warmer than it would be in their absence.[60][d] Without the Earth's atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature would be well below the freezing temperature of water.[61] The major greenhouse gases arewater vapour, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH4), which causes 4–9%; and ozone (O3), which causes 3–7%.[62][63][64] Clouds also affect the radiation balance through cloud forcingssimilar to greenhouse gases.
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increasedradiative forcing from CO2, methane,tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. According to work published in 2007, theconcentrations of CO2 and methane had increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750.[65] These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 800,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores.[66][67][68][69] Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago.[70]
Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.[71] Another significant non-fuel source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions is the calcination of limestonefor clinker production, a chemical process which releases CO2.[72] Estimates of global CO2 emissions in 2011 from fossil fuel combustion, including cement production andgas flaring, was 34.8 billion tonnes (9.5 ± 0.5 PgC), an increase of 54% above emissions in 1990. Coal burning was responsible for 43% of the total emissions, oil 34%, gas 18%, cement 4.9% and gas flaring 0.7%.[73]
In May 2013, it was reported that readings for CO2 taken at the world's primary benchmark site in Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm. According to professor Brian Hoskins, this is likely the first time CO2 levels have been this high for about 4.5 million years.[74][75] Monthly global CO2 concentrations exceeded 400 ppm in March 2015, probably for the first time in several million years.[76] On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide continues to increaseabove levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years; currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere.[77]
Over the last three decades of the twentieth century, gross domestic product per capita and population growth were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions.[78]CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.[79][80]:71 Emissions can be attributed to different regions. Attributions of emissions due to land-use change are subject to considerable uncertainty.[81][82]:289
Emissions scenarios, estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases, have been projected that depend upon uncertain economic, sociological,technological, and natural developments.[83]In most scenarios, emissions continue to rise over the century, while in a few, emissions are reduced.[84][85] Fossil fuel reserves are abundant, and will not limit carbon emissions in the 21st century.[86] Emission scenarios, combined with modelling of the carbon cycle, have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change in the future. Using the six IPCC SRES "marker" scenarios, models suggest that by the year 2100, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 could range between 541 and 970 ppm.[87] This is 90–250% above the concentration in the year 1750.
The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion, i.e., the destruction of stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer) bychlorofluorocarbons.[88][89] Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.[90]
Aerosols and soot
Ship tracks can be seen as lines in these clouds over the Atlantic Ocean on the East Coast of the United States. Atmospheric particles from these and other sources could have a large effect on climate through the aerosol indirect effect.
Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, was observed from 1961 until at least 1990.[91] Solid and liquid particlesknown as aerosols, produced by volcanoes and human-made pollutants, are thought to be the main cause of this dimming. They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO2 and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO2 greenhouse gases such as methane.[92] Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere. Removal by clouds and precipitation gives tropospheric aerosols anatmospheric lifetime of only about a week, while stratospheric aerosols can remain for a few years. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.[93] Black carbon is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming (contribution being estimated at 17 to 20%, whereas carbon dioxide contributes 40 to 45% to global warming[94][95]).[96]
In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, aerosols have indirect effects on the Earth's radiation budget. Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets, a phenomenon known as theTwomey effect.[97] This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight, known as the Albrecht effect.[98] Indirect effects are most noticeable in marine stratiform clouds, and have very little radiative effect on convective clouds. Indirect effects of aerosols represent the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.[99]
Soot may either cool or warm Earth's climate system, depending on whether it is airborne or deposited. Atmospheric soot directly absorbs solar radiation, which heats the atmosphere and cools the surface. In isolated areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked byatmospheric brown clouds.[100] When deposited, especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions, the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface.[101] The influences of atmospheric particles, including black carbon, are most pronounced in the tropics and sub-tropics, particularly in Asia, while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere.[102]
Contribution of natural factors and human activities to radiative forcing of climate change.[103] Radiative forcing values are for the year 2005, relative to the pre-industrial era (1750).[103]The contribution of solar irradiance to radiative forcing is 5% the value of the combined radiative forcing due to increases in the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide,methane and nitrous oxide.[104]
Solar activity
Since 1978, solar irradiance has been measured by satellites.[105] These measurements indicate that the Sun's radiative output has not increased since then, so the warming that occurred in the past 40 years cannot be attributed to an increase in solar energy reaching the Earth.
Climate models have been used to examine the role of the Sun in recent climate change.[106] Models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when only taking into account variations in solar output and volcanic activity. Models are, however, able to simulate the observed 20th century changes in temperature when they include all of the most important external forcings, consisting of both human influences and natural forcings.
Another line of evidence for the Sun's non-attributability is the differing temperature changes at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere.[107] According to basic physical principles, the greenhouse effect produces warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere), but cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere).[108][109] If solar variations were responsible for the observed warming, warming of both the troposphere and the stratosphere would be expected.[110]
Variations in Earth's orbit
The tilt of the Earth’s axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun vary slowly over tens of thousands of years. This changes climate by changing the seasonal and latitudinal distribution of incoming solar energy at Earth's surface.[111] During the last few thousand years, this phenomenon contributed to a slow cooling trend at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during summer, a trend that was reversed by greenhouse-gas-induced warming during the 20th century.[112][113][114][115] Orbital cycles favorable for glaciation are not expected within the next 50,000 years.[116][117]
Feedback
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The dark ocean surface reflects only 6 percent of incoming solar radiation, instead sea ice reflects 50 to 70 percent.[118]
The climate system includes a range offeedbacks, which alter the response of the system to changes in external forcings. Positive feedbacks increase the response of the climate system to an initial forcing, while negative feedbacks reduce it.[119]
There are a range of feedbacks in the climate system, including water vapour, changes inice-albedo (snow and ice cover affect how much the Earth's surface absorbs or reflects incoming sunlight), clouds, and changes in the Earth's carbon cycle (e.g., the release of carbon from soil).[120] The main negative feedback is the energy the Earth's surfaceradiates into space as infrared radiation.[121]According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, if theabsolute temperature (as measured inkelvins) doubles,[e] radiated energy increases by a factor of 16 (2 to the 4th power).[122]
Feedbacks are an important factor in determining the sensitivity of the climate system to increased atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Other factors being equal, a higher climate sensitivity means that more warming will occur for a given increase in greenhouse gas forcing.[123] Uncertainty over the effect of feedbacks is a major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given forcing scenario. More research is needed to understand the role of clouds[119] and carbon cycle feedbacks in climate projections.[124]
The IPCC projections previously mentioned span the "likely" range (greater than 66% probability, based on expert judgement)[125]for the selected emissions scenarios. However, the IPCC's projections do not reflect the full range of uncertainty.[126] The lower end of the "likely" range appears to be better constrained than the upper end.[126]
An observation based study on future climate change, on the soil carbon feedback, conducted since 1991 in Harvard, suggests release of about 190 petagrams of soil carbon, the equivalent of the past two decades of greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel burning, until 2100 from the top 1-meter of Earth's soils, due to changes in microbial communities under elevated temperatures.[127][128] Climate models do not account for this possible feedback mechanism.
Climate models
Calculations of global warming prepared in or before 2001 from a range of climate models under the SRES A2 emissions scenario, which assumes no action is taken to reduce emissions and regionally divided economic development.
Projected change in annual mean surface air temperature from the late 20th century to the middle 21st century, based on a medium emissions scenario (SRES A1B).[129] This scenario assumes that no future policies are adopted to limit greenhouse gas emissions. Image credit: NOAAGFDL.[130]
A climate model is a representation of the physical, chemical and biological processes that affect the climate system.[131] Such models are based on scientific disciplines such as fluid dynamics and thermodynamicsas well as physical processes such asradiative transfer. The models may be used to predict a range of variables such as local air movement, temperature, clouds, and other atmospheric properties; ocean temperature,salt content, and circulation; ice cover on land and sea; the transfer of heat and moisture from soil and vegetation to the atmosphere; and chemical and biological processes, among others.
Although researchers attempt to include as many processes as possible, simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system. Results from models can also vary due to different greenhouse gas inputs and the model's climate sensitivity. For example, the uncertainty in IPCC's 2007 projections is caused by (1) the use of multiple models[126] with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations,[132] (2) the use of differing estimates of humanity's future greenhouse gas emissions,[126] (3) any additional emissions from climate feedbacks that were not included in the models IPCC used to prepare its report, i.e., greenhouse gas releases from permafrost.[133]
The models do not assume the climate will warm due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases. Instead the models predict how greenhouse gases will interact with radiative transfer and other physical processes. Warming or cooling is thus a result, not an assumption, of the models.[134]
Clouds and their effects are especially difficult to predict. Improving the models' representation of clouds is therefore an important topic in current research.[135]Another prominent research topic is expanding and improving representations of the carbon cycle.[136][137][138]
Models are also used to help investigate thecauses of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and human causes. Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects, they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.[55]
The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates.[139] Climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate.[140] Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC. Observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted.[141] Precipitation increased proportionally to atmospheric humidity, and hence significantly faster than global climate models predict.[142][143] Since 1990, sea level has also risen considerably faster than models predicted it would.[144]
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