Byte
The byte (/baɪt/) is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits. Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a singlecharacter of text in a computer[1][2] and for this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many computer architectures.
The size of the byte has historically been hardware dependent and no definitive standards existed that mandated the size – byte-sizes from 1[3] to 48 bits[4] are known to have been used in the past. Early character encoding systems often used six bits, and machines using six-bit and nine-bit bytes were common into the 1960s. These machines most commonly had memory words of 12, 24, 36, 48 or 60 bits, corresponding to two, four, six, eight or 10 six-bit bytes. In this era, bytes in the instruction stream were often referred to as syllables, before the term byte became common.
The modern de-facto standard of eight bits, as documented in ISO/IEC 2382-1:1993, is a convenient power of two permitting the values 0 through 255 for one byte.[5] The international standard IEC 80000-13 codified this common meaning. Many types of applications use information representable in eight or fewer bits and processor designers optimize for this common usage. The popularity of major commercial computing architectures has aided in the ubiquitous acceptance of the eight-bit size.[6] Modern architectures typically use 32 or 64-bit words, built of four or eight bytes.
The unit symbol for the byte was designated as the upper-case letter B by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) andInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)[7] in contrast to the bit, whose IEEE symbol is a lower-case b. Internationally, the unit octet, symbol o, explicitly denotes a sequence of eight bits, eliminating the ambiguity of the byte.[8][9]
History
The term byte was coined by Werner Buchholzin June 1956,[3][10][11][a] during the early design phase for the IBM Stretch[12][13][1][10][11][14][15]computer, which had addressing to the bit and variable field length (VFL) instructions with a byte size encoded in the instruction.[10]It is a deliberate respelling of bite to avoid accidental mutation to bit.[1][10][16]
Another origin of byte for bit groups smaller than a machine's word size (and in particular groups of four bits) is on record by Louis G. Dooley, who claimed he coined the term while working with Jules Schwartz and Dick Beeler on an air defense system called SAGE at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in ca. 1956/1957, which was jointly developed by Rand, MIT, and IBM.[17][18] Later on, Schwartz's languageJOVIAL actually used the term, but he recalled vaguely that it was derived from AN/FSQ-31.[19][18]
Early computers used a variety of four-bitbinary coded decimal (BCD) representations and the six-bit codes for printable graphic patterns common in the U.S. Army(FIELDATA) and Navy. These representations included alphanumeric characters and special graphical symbols. These sets were expanded in 1963 to seven bits of coding, called theAmerican Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) as the Federal Information Processing Standard, which replaced the incompatible teleprinter codes in use by different branches of the U.S. government and universities during the 1960s. ASCII included the distinction of upper- and lowercase alphabets and a set ofcontrol characters to facilitate the transmission of written language as well as printing device functions, such as page advance and line feed, and the physical or logical control of data flow over the transmission media.[15] During the early 1960s, while also active in ASCII standardization, IBM simultaneously introduced in its product line of System/360the eight-bit Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), an expansion of their six-bit binary-coded decimal (BCDIC) representation used in earlier card punches.[20] The prominence of the System/360 led to the ubiquitous adoption of the eight-bit storage size,[15][13][10] while in detail the EBCDIC and ASCII encoding schemes are different.
In the early 1960s, AT&T introduced digital telephony first on long-distance trunk lines. These used the eight-bit µ-law encoding. This large investment promised to reduce transmission costs for eight-bit data.
The development of eight-bit microprocessorsin the 1970s popularized this storage size. Microprocessors such as the Intel 8008, the direct predecessor of the 8080 and the 8086, used in early personal computers, could also perform a small number of operations on thefour-bit pairs in a byte, such as the decimal-add-adjust (DAA) instruction. A four-bit quantity is often called a nibble, also nybble, which is conveniently represented by a singlehexadecimal digit.
The term octet is used to unambiguously specify a size of eight bits.[15][9] It is used extensively in protocol definitions.
Historically, the term octad or octade was used to denote eight bits as well at least in Western Europe;[21][22] however, this usage is no longer common. The exact origin of the term is unclear, but it can be found in British, Dutch, and German sources of the 1960s and 1970s, and throughout the documentation ofPhilips mainframe computers.
Unit symbol
The unit symbol for the byte is specified in IEC 80000-13, IEEE 1541 and the Metric Interchange Format[7] as the upper-case character B. In contrast, IEEE 1541 specifies the lower case character b as the symbol for the bit, however, IEC 80000-13 and Metric-Interchange-Format specify the symbol as bit, providing disambiguation from B for byte.
In the International System of Quantities (ISQ), B is the symbol of the bel, a unit of logarithmic power ratios named after Alexander Graham Bell, creating a conflict with the IEC specification. However, little danger of confusion exists, because the bel is a rarely used unit. It is used primarily in its decadic fraction, the decibel (dB), for signal strengthand sound pressure level measurements, while a unit for one tenth of a byte, the decibyte, and other fractions, are only used in derived units, such as transmission rates.
Unit multiples
Percentage difference between decimal and binary interpretations of the unit prefixes grows with increasing storage size
Despite standardization efforts, ambiguity still exists in the meanings of the SI (or metric) prefixes used with the unit byte, especially concerning the prefixes kilo (k or K), mega(M), and giga (G). Computer memory has a binary architecture in which multiples are expressed in powers of 2. In some fields of the software and computer hardware industries a binary prefix is used for bytes and bits, while producers of computer storage devices practice adherence to decimal SI multiples. For example, a computer disk drive capacity of 100 gigabytes is specified when the disk contains 100 billion bytes (93 gibibytes) of storage space.
Common uses
The C and C++ programming languages define byte as an "addressable unit of data storage large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment" (clause 3.6 of the C standard). The C standard requires that the integral data type unsigned char must hold at least 256 different values, and is represented by at least eight bits (clause 5.2.4.2.1). Various implementations of C and C++ reserve 8, 9, 16, 32, or 36 bits for the storage of a byte.[24][25][b] In addition, the C and C++ standards require that there are no "gaps" between two bytes. This means every bit in memory is part of a byte.[26]
Java's primitive
byte data type is always defined as consisting of 8 bits and being a signed data type, holding values from −128 to 127.
.NET programming languages, such as C#, define both an unsigned
byte and a signedsbyte, holding values from 0 to 255, and −128 to 127, respectively.
In data transmission systems, the byte is defined as a contiguous sequence of bits in a serial data stream representing the smallest distinguished unit of data. A transmission unit might include start bits, stop bits, or parity bits, and thus could vary from 7 to 12 bits to contain a single 7-bit ASCII code.[27]
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